Forfatterarkiv: Marius

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Care and Feeding of the Endocannabinoid System: A Systematic Review of Potential Clinical Interventions that Upregulate the Endocannabinoid System

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Denne beskriver endocannabinoider(eCB) og hvordan man kan øke produksjonen av dem og reseptorene for dem. eCB er et kroppens viktigste naturlige smertstillende stoffer som kan produseres og påvirker alle nerver i kroppen. Spesielt viktig i hjernen, men også i det perifere nervesystem.

Massasje, kiropraktikk og hard trening (f.eks. runners high) utløser eCB i kroppen. Det gjør også omegabalanse (mer n-3), probiotica, NSAIDs, m.m. Også yoga, meditasjon, pust og andre stressreduserende påvirker eCB. Og trening, men kun om man gjør det jevnlig over tid.

Den nevner at langvarig stress reduserer eCB i kroppen siden det er koblet til kortisol. Men den nevner også at noen tilstander kan ha forhøyet eCB i kroppen, f.eks. overvekt.

Med høyt nivå av n-6 relativt til n-3 blir det en overvekt av AA (arakidonsyre) som produserer en overvekt av eCB, som dermed fører til en reduksjon av eCB reseptorer. Dette gjør at smertestillende medikamenter fungerer dårligere, og at det blir lettere kronisk smerte. Tilskudd av n-3 gjør at eCB reseptorene øker. Studiene er gjort på mus og innebærer 17 g/kg.

http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0089566

The endocannabinoid (eCB) system consists of receptors, endogenous ligands, and ligand metabolic enzymes. Metaphorically the eCB system represents a microcosm of psychoneuroimmunology or mind-body medicine. Cannabinoid receptor 1 (CB1) is the most abundant G protein-coupled receptor expressed in the brain, with particularly dense expression in (rank order): the substantia nigra, globus pallidus, hippocampus, cerebral cortex, putamen, caudate, cerebellum, and amygdala [1]. CB1 is also expressed in non-neuronal cells, such as adipocytes and hepatocytes, and in musculoskeletal tissues. Cannabinoid receptor 2 (CB2) is principally associated with cells governing immune function, although it may also be expressed in the central nervous [2], [3].

The eCB system’s salient homeostatic roles have been summarized as, “relax, eat, sleep, forget, and protect” [5]. It modulates embryological development, neural plasticity, neuroprotection, immunity and inflammation, apoptosis and carcinogenesis, pain and emotional memory, and most importantly from the viewpoint of recent drug development: hunger, feeding, and metabolism. Obese individuals seem to display an increased eCB tone, driving CB1activation in a chronic, feed-forward dysfunction (reviewed by [6]).

Other diseases are associated with suboptimal functioning of the eCB system. Russo [8]proposed that migraine, fibromyalgia, irritable bowel syndrome, and related conditions represent CEDS, “clinical endocannabinoid deficiency syndromes.” Fride [9] speculated that a dysfunctional eCB system in infants contributes to “failure to thrive” syndrome. Hill and Gorzalka [10] hypothesized that deficient eCB signaling could be involved in the pathogenesis of depressive illnesses. In human studies, eCB system deficiencies have been implicated in uncompensated schizophrenia [11], migraine [12], multiple sclerosis [13], Huntington’s [14],[15], uncompensated Parkinson’s [16], irritable bowel syndrome [17], uncompensated anorexia[18], and chronic motion sickness [19].

NSAIDs inhibit two cyclooxygenase (COX) enzymes, COX1 and COX2, and thereby block the conversion of arachidonic acid (AA) into inflammatory prostaglandins. Ibuprofen, ketorolac, and flurbiprofen also block the hydrolysis of AEA into arachidonic acid and ethanolamine [27]. SeeFigure 2. A binding site for some NSAIDs on FAAH has also been identified [28]. NSAID inhibition of COX2 blocks the metabolism of AEA and 2-AG into prostaglandin ethanolamides (PG-EAs) and prostaglandin glycerol esters (PG-GEs), respectively [29].

Combining NSAIDs with cannabinoids (either eCBs or exogenous cannabinoids) produces additive or synergistic effects. A sub-effective dose of WIN55,212-2 became fully antinociceptive following administration of indomethacin in rats [36].

In summary, preclinical studies indicate that some NSAIDs inhibit FAAH and enhance the activity of eCBs, phytocannabinoids, and synthetic cannabinoids. Combinational effects may be particularly relevant at peripheral sites, such as the peripheral terminals of nociceptors.

The distribution of glucocorticoid receptors (GRs) and CB1 overlap substantially in the central nervous system and other tissues, as do GRs and CB2 in immune cells. Dual activation of GRs and CBs may participate in glucocorticoid-mediated anti-inflammatory activity, immune suppression, insulin resistance, and acute psychoactive effects.

The acute administration of glucocorticoids may shift AA metabolism toward eCB synthesis in parts of the brain.

Chronic exposure to glucocorticoids downregulates the eCB system. Chronic corticosterone administration decreased CB1 densities in rat hippocampus [59] and mouse hippocampus and amygdala [61]. Chronic corticosterone administration in male rats led to visceral hyperalgesia in response to colorectal distension, accompanied by increased AEA, decreased CB1 expression, and increased TRPV1 expression in dorsal root ganglia. Co-treatment with the corticoid receptor antagonist RU-486 prevented these changes [62].

Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) play fundamental roles in many cellular and multicellular processes, including inflammation, immunity, and neurotransmission. They must be obtained through diet, and a proper balance between omega-6 (ω-6) PUFAs and ω-3 PUFAs is essential. The typical Western diet contains a surfeit of ω-6s and a deficiency of ω-3s [130].

The inflammatory metabolites of AA are countered by dietary ω-3s. The two best-known ω-3s are eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, 20:5ω-3) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6ω-3).

eCBs are derived from AA (see Figure 2). Several preclinical studies showed that dietary supplementation with AA increased serum levels of AEA and 2-AG, summarized in Table 1. Although we clearly need AA to biosynthesize eCBs, excessive levels of AA, administered chronically, may lead to excessive levels of eCBs. This in turn may lead to desensitized and downregulated CB1 and CB2 receptors.

Dietary supplementation with ω-3s predictably increased the concentration of EPA and/or DHA in tissues, cells, and plasma, and decreased the relative concentration of AA in tissues, cells, and plasma [132], [133]. ω-3 supplementation also decreased AEA and 2-AG in tissues, cells, and plasma (Table 1).

Adequate levels of dietary ω-3s are required for proper eCB signaling. Mice supplemented with ω-3s, compared to mice on a control diet, expressed greater levels of CB1 and CB2 mRNA.

n summary, dietary ω-3s seem to act as homeostatic regulators of the eCB system. In obese rodents fed a high-AA diet, ω-3s significantly decrease eCBs, especially 2-AG, particularly in tissues that become dysregulated, such as adipose and liver tissues. Plasma eCB levels are reduced by krill oil also in obese humans. Little change in eCB levels are seen in normo-weight individuals not fed a high ω-6 diet, and dietary ω-3s are required for proper eCB signaling.

Human intestinal epithelial cells incubated with L. acidophilus produced more CB2 mRNA [145]. Feeding L. acidophilus to mice and rats increased the expression of CB2 mRNA in colonic epithelial cells. Lastly, mice fed L. acidophilus showed less pain behavior following colonic distension with butyrate than control mice, an effect reversed by the CB2 antagonist AM630[145].

Chronic or repeated stress results in a chronic elevation of endogenous corticosterone via the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) axis. Chronic stress (repeated restraint) reduced AEA levels throughout the corticolimbic stress circuit in rodents [99], [196], [197].

In summary, chronic stress impairs the eCB system, via decreased levels of AEA and 2-AG. Changes in CB1 expression are more labile. Stress management may reverse the effects of chronic stress on eCB signaling, although few studies exploring this possibility have been performed to date. Clinical anecdotes suggests that stress-reduction techniques, such as meditation, yoga, and deep breathing exercises impart mild cannabimimetic effects [218].

Massage and osteopathic manipulation of asymptomatic participants increased serum AEA 168% over pretreatment levels; mean OEA levels decreased 27%, and no changes occurred in 2-AG. Participants receiving sham manipulation showed no changes [218].

Upregulation of the eCB system in obese humans seems to be driven by excessive production of eCBs in several peripheral tissues such as visceral adipose tissue, liver, pancreas, and skeletal muscle.

In summary, increased food intake, adiposity, and elevated levels of AEA and 2-AG apparently spiral in a feed-forward mechanism. Weight loss from caloric restriction breaks the cycle, possibly by reducing CB1 expression and reducing eCB levels.

Although both types of exercise regimens increased eCB ligand concentrations, only long-term-forced exercise led to sustained elevations of eCBs, and predictable CB1 downregulation.

In whole animals, however, caffeine’s effects are biphasic and vary by dosage and acute versus chronic administration. In humans, the acute administration of caffeine decreases headache pain, but exposure to chronic high doses, ≥300 mg/day, may exacerbate chronic pain [275].

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Structure and Biomechanics of Peripheral Nerves: Nerve Responses to Physical Stresses and Implications for Physical Therapist Practice

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Denne sier mye om nervenes blodgjennomstrømmning. Spesielt interessant er avnittet om hvor lite trykk som skal til før blodgjennomstrømningen stopper. Om trykket opprettholdes i 8 timer vil det skje en skade i nerven. Så lite som 20 mm Hg er nok til at blodsirkluasjonen blir dårligere.

http://ptjournal.apta.org/content/86/1/92.full

Simply placing the hand on a computer mouse was shown to increase the tunnel pressure from the resting 5 mm Hg to 16 to 21 mm Hg,79 and actively using the mouse to point and click increased the tunnel pressure to 28 to 33 mm Hg, a pressure high enough to reduce nerve blood flow.

In subjects with carpal tunnel syndrome, pressure in the carpal tunnel was 32 mm Hg with the wrist in a neutral position and rose to a mean of 110 mm Hg with full wrist extension in subjects with carpal tunnel syndrome.76 These tunnel pressures exceed the threshold of 20 to 30 mm Hg for vascular perfusion even at rest. Taken together, these findings suggest that even functional positions, such as the use of a computer keyboard and mouse, place the wrist in a position of increased carpal tunnel pressure, compromising nerve blood flow and placing people at risk for median nerve injury.

Arterial and endoneurial capillary blood flows were stopped at pressures of 50 to 70 mm Hg67 and 80 mm Hg,75 respectively. Interestingly, in humans, intraneural blood flow and sensory responses are blocked at extraneural tissue pressures 45 mm Hg below the mean arterial pressure.82 A compressive stress of only 30 mm Hg, if maintained for 2 hours, results in endoneurial edema,83 and, if maintained for 8 hours, results in endoneurial pressure high enough to subsequently impair blood flow.84 The endoneurial edema is thought to result from ischemic damage to endoneurial capillary endothelial cells and an alteration in the blood-nerve barrier. The same compressive stress of 30 mm Hg applied for 8 hours is sufficient to impair both anterograde axonal transport and retrograde axonal transport.85,86Increasing pressure results in greater tissue damage, as a compressive force of 150 mm Hg maintained for 30 minutes was shown to induce a degeneration of 30% of the distal fibers,48 and compressive forces of 200 and 400 mm Hg maintained for 2 hours were shown to block axonal transport for 1 and 3 days, respectively.87

The pathological consequences of prolonged compression include subperineurial edema; inflammation; deposition of fibrin; activation of endoneurial fibroblasts, mast cells, and macrophages; demyelination; axon degeneration; and fibrosis.83 Compression of a very long duration has been modeled in animals with loose ligatures,88 Silastic* tubes,89,90and pressure balloons placed within an anatomical tunnel.91 The pathological findings are thought to result from both inflammatory and cellular phenomena and include changes in the blood-nerve barrier, thickening of the perineurium and epineurium, thinning of myelin, demyelination and degeneration of axons in the fascicle periphery, and slowed nerve conduction velocity.

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Hypocapnia in patients with chronic neck pain: association with pain, muscle function, and psychologic states.

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Nevner at hypokapni (lav CO2) er assosiert med smerte.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23958733

OBJECTIVE:

The aim of this study was to investigate whether patients with chronic neck pain have changes in their transcutaneous partial pressure of arterial carbon dioxide (PtcCO2) and whether other physical and psychologic parameters are associated.

DESIGN:

In this cross-sectional study, 45 patients with chronic idiopathic neck pain and 45 healthy sex-, age-, height-, and weight-matched controls were voluntarily recruited. The participants’ neck muscle strength, endurance of the deep neck flexors, neck range of movement, forward head posture, psychologic states (anxiety, depression, kinesiophobia, and catastrophizing), disability, and pain were assessed. PtcCO2 was assessed using transcutaneous blood gas monitoring.

RESULTS:

The patients with chronic neck pain presented significantly reduced PtcCO2 (P < 0.01). In the patients, PtcCO2 was significantly correlated with strength of the neck muscles, endurance of the deep neck flexors, kinesiophobia, catastrophizing, and pain intensity (P < 0.05). Pain intensity, endurance of the deep neck flexors, and kinesiophobia remained as significant predictors into the regression model of PtcCO2.

CONCLUSIONS:

Patients with chronic neck pain present with reduced PtcCO2, which can reach the limits of hypocapnia. This disturbance seems to be associated with physical and psychologic manifestations of neck pain. These findings can have a great impact on various clinical aspects, notably, patient assessment, rehabilitation, and drug prescription.

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Differential blood flow responses to CO2 in human internal and external carotid and vertebral arteries

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Denne viser hvordan CO2-responsen er litt forskjellige i forskjellige blodkar. Den er sterkere i blodkar inni hjernen enn i blodkar i kraniet, ansiktet og ryggraden. Blodkar i ryggraden har større respons enn blodkar i ansiktet, men mindre respons enn blodkar i hjernen.

http://jp.physoc.org/content/590/14/3277.long

Because of methodological limitations, almost all previous studies have evaluated the response of mean blood flow velocity (Vmean) in the middle cerebral artery (MCA) to changes in CO2 as a measure of CO2 reactivity across the whole brain (Aaslid et al. 1989; Ainslie & Duffin, 2009; Ainslie & Ogoh, 2009).

 

ICA, VA and BA CO2 reactivity was significantly higher during hypercapnia than during hypocapnia (ICA, P < 0.01; VA, P < 0.05; BA, P < 0.05), but ECA and MCA were not significantly different.

The major finding from the present study was that cerebral CO2 reactivity was significantly lower in the VA and its distal artery (BA) than in the ICA and its distal artery (MCA). These findings indicate that vertebro-basilar circulation has lower CO2 reactivity than internal carotid circulation. Our second major finding was that ECA blood flow was unresponsive to hypocapnia and hypercapnia, suggesting that CO2 reactivity of the external carotid circulation is markedly diminished compared to that of the cerebral circulation. These findings suggest that different CO2 reactivity may explain differences in CBF responses to physiological conditions (i.e. dynamic exercise and orthostatic stress) across areas in the brain and/or head.

Hypercapnic cerebral CO2 reactivity in global CBF was greater than the hypocapnic reactivity (Ide et al. 2003) (Table 3). The mechanisms underlying this greater reactivity to hypercapnia compared with hypocapnia may be related to a greater influence of vasodilator mediators on intracranial vascular tone compared with vasoconstrictive mediators (Toda & Okamura, 1998; Ainslie & Duffin, 2009). In humans, Peebles et al.(2008) recently reported that, during hypercapnia, there is a large release of nitric oxide (NO) from the brain, whereas this response was absent during hypocapnia.

The difference in CO2 reactivity between vertebro-basilar territories (VA and BA) and the cerebral cortex (ICA and MCA) may be due to diverse characteristics of vasculature, e.g. regional microvascular density (Sato et al. 1984), basal vascular tone (Ackerman, 1973; Haubrich et al. 2004; Reinhard et al. 2008), autonomic innervation (Edvinsson et al. 1976; Hamel et al. 1988) and regional heterogeneity in ion channels or production of NO (Iadecola & Zhang, 1994; Gotoh et al. 2001).

Interestingly, the response of the ECA to changes in CO2 may be similar to other peripheral arteries. It has long been appreciated that the vasodilatory effect of hypercapnia is much more profound in cerebral than in peripheral vasculature, particularly leg (Lennox & Gibbs, 1932; Ainslie et al. 2005) and brachial arteries (Miyazaki, 1973). These findings suggest that control of CO2 is particularly important in the cerebral circulation. The high resting metabolic requirements of the brain, compared with that of other vasculature, might be one reason why this circulatory arrangement is desirable (Ainslie et al. 2005). Specifically, high CO2 reactivity may be a way for the brain to match metabolism with flow (Ainslie et al. 2005).

Lower CO2reactivity in the vertebro-basilar system may be important for maintaining central respiratory function because Graphic in central chemoreceptors is regulated by Graphic and blood flow to maintain breathing stability.

In summary, our study shows that cerebral CO2 reactivity in the vertebro-basilar circulation is lower than that in the internal carotid circulation, while CO2 reactivity in the external carotid circulation is much lower compared with two other cerebral arteries. These findings indicate a difference in cerebral CO2 reactivity between different circulatory areas in the brain and head, which may explain different CBF responses to physiological stress. Lower CO2 reactivity in the vertebro-basilar system may be beneficial for preserving blood flow to the medulla oblongata to maintain vital systemic functions, while higher CO2 reactivity in the internal carotid system may imply a larger tolerance for varied blood flow in the cerebral cortex.

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Morning attenuation in cerebrovascular CO2 reactivity in healthy humans is associated with a lowered cerebral oxygenation and an augmented ventilatory response to CO2

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Denne beskriver hvordan blodkarenes respons på CO2 er dårligere om morgenen, og det er derfor det skjer flere slag og slikt om morgenen. Den nevner mange interessante prinsipper. Bl.a. at lavere vasomotor respons (på CO2) gir mindre oksygen til hjernen. Og at i opptil 20 sekunder etter en 20 sekunder holdning av pust (etter utpust) øker fortsatt oksygenmengden og blodgjennomstrømningen i hjernen. Nevner også at siden blodkarene i hjernen reagerer dårligere på CO2 om morgenen blir det lett at pusten over- eller underkompenserer, så pustemønsteret blir uregelmessig om morgenen. Spesielt om man har underliggende faremomenter som hjerte/karsykdommer.

http://jap.physiology.org/content/102/5/1891

 

Furthermore, our results suggest that morning cerebral tissue oxygenation might be reduced as a result of a decreased cerebrovascular responsiveness to CO2 or other factors, leading to a higher level of desaturation.

Our data indicate that the cerebrovascular reactivity to CO2 in healthy subjects is significantly reduced in the morning and is strongly associated with an augmented ventilatory response to CO2. It is likely that this reduction in MCAV CO2 reactivity, by reducing blood flow through medullary respiratory control centers, increases both the arterial-brain tissue PCO2 difference and the H+ concentration presented to the central chemoreceptor(s) (11, 44). In effect, it appears the brain tissue is more susceptible in the morning to changes in arterial PCO2, which could increase the likelihood of ventilatory overshoots and undershoots.

However, as was the case with the hypercapnic challenge, subjects holding their breath in the morning experienced a significantly blunted increase in MCAV compared with evening, likely a result of a reduced cerebrovascular responsiveness to CO2.

In conclusion, our results suggest that early morning reductions in cerebrovascular CO2 reactivity strongly influence the magnitude of the ventilatory response to CO2. This may have significant implications for breathing stability, increasing the chances of periodic breathing in the morning in patients with additional risk factors. The early morning reduction in cerebral oxygenation with hypercapnic challenge, mild hypoxemia, or during apnea may be a contributing factor in the high prevalence of early morning stroke. Whether differences in the responses of CBF, oxygenation, or V̇E to CO2challenge are associated with other risk factors for stroke, such as gender or age, remains to be elucidated.

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CO2-beriket vann til fotbad

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Å bade i CO2 beriket vann har vært brukt som medisin i alle år. Hellige og mirkauløse kilder har ofter vært vann med et høyt innhold av karbondioksid. Og det har blitt brukt i spa behandling i århundrer, spesielt i Bulgaria. Man finner Co2-rikt vann spesielt ved sovende og inaktive vulkaner.

CO2 er et veldig lite molekyl som diffunderer lett igjennom huden. I CO2-beriket vann kommer derfor CO2 inn i huden og inn til blodkarene i underhuden, hvor alle sansenerver ligger. Den økte CO2 en gjør at blodkarene rundt nervetrådene og i muskelvevet utvides (vasodilasjon) og at oksygene letter hopper av blodcellene slik at det kan bli brukt til energi i celler som vanligvis har lite tilgang på oksygen.

CO2 beriket vann kan vi lage selv på en svært enkel måte: blande Natron, Sitronsyre og vann. Begge disse stoffene fåes kjøpt på vanlig daglivarebutikk. Vannet begynner å bruse, og dette er CO2.

Studier nevner at man bør ha 900-1200 mg CO2 pr liter vann. Ved å måle pH kan vi regne med at vi har det når pH er nede på 5.

Vi kan se CO2 effekten på huden ved at det kommer tett-i-tett med ørsmå bobler. I f.eks. fotbad vil vi se at når vi tar foten opp fra vannet så er den rød, noe som er et tegn på økt blodsirkulasjon i huden.

For alle med nevropatier, diabetes, sår, nevromer, leggspenninger, restless leg syndrom, som lett blir sliten i bena av å gå, så vil dette være verdt et forsøk.

2-3 ganger i uka pleier å være den vanlige oppskriften. Noen studier har brukt det hver dag i mange uker. Spesielt når det gjelder diabetes sår.

Oppskrift: Bland 1 poseNatron med 2 poser Sitronsyre (blandingsforhold ca. 1:1) og hell innholdet i 5L vann. Det bruser veldig pga reaksjonen som lager CO2. Når du setter føttene nedi skal det komme mange små bobler som dekker huden. Etter 5-10 minutter vil huden som er under vann bli rød. Dette er et tegn på økt blodsirkulasjon.

5-15 minutter etter du er ferdig med fotbadet vil du sannsynligvis kjenne det prikker og strømmer ellers i kroppen også. Vanligvis kjennes det først og fremst i armer og bein, som er de stedene vi lettest kjenner økt blodsirkulasjon.

Her er noen studier som bekrefter effektene av CO2 beriket vann.

Beskriver det meste om balneotherapy, som det også heter. Inkludert kontraindikasjoner(hjerteproblemer og hypercapni som følge av lungeskade): http://www.centro-lavalle.com/edu/wp-content/uploads/2010/05/Carbon_Dioxide_Bath.pdf

Table 4. Major Indicators for CO2 Balneotherapy

1. Hypertension, especially borderline hypertension

2. Arteriolar occlusion, Stages I and II

3. Functional arteriolar blood flow disorders

4. Microcirculatory disorders

5. Functional disorders of the heart

Beskriver alt om hvordan det øker blodsirkulasjon og oksygenmetning: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3169585/?report=classic

Viser at det øker blodsirkulasjonen i huden og oksygenmetningen i muskelvev hos de som lett blir trøtte i beina: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9112881/

Viser at det øker blodsirkulasjon og produksjonen av blodkar (angiogenese): http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/111/12/1523.long

Viser at det reparerer sår som ikke vil gro: http://iv.iiarjournals.org/content/24/2/223.long

Viser at det reparerer muskelskade: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3805014/

Viser at det reparerer muskelskade og atrofi (muskelsvikt) etter langtids post-operative sengeliggende: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21371433

Viser at det reduserer hjertefrekvens gjennom å dempe sympaticus aktivering (ikke ved å øke parasymptaticus aktivering): http://jap.physiology.org/content/96/1/226

Viser at det øker mitokondrier og fjerner syster: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3499556/

Viser at det øker antioksidant status, reduserer frie radikaler og øker blodsirkulasjon i kapuillærene (mikrosirkulasjon): http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21248668

Viser at det hjelper til å reparere sår etter operasjon: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3595724/

Dr. Sircus sin forklaring av CO2 medisin som nevner mange måter å gjøre det på: 

CO2 Medicine & Bath Bombing Your Way to Health

Denne artikkelen beskriver mye om historien til CO2-bad. http://ndnr.com/dermatology/cellulite-and-carbon-dioxide-bath/

Mange bilder av diabetes sår (OBS: ikke for sarte sjeler) som blir regenerert i løpet av få uker med 20-30 min fotbad. Disse bruker 900-1000ppm CO2 konsentrasjon. Jeg er usikker på om det er mulig med å blande Sitronsyre og Natron: http://www.iasj.net/iasj?func=fulltext&aId=48581

Denne artikkelen beskriver de fleste sider ved forskjellig bruk av CO2 behandling. God gjennomgang av hvordan blodsirkluasjonen påvirkes. http://www.scuolaeuropeamedicinaestetica.it/public/CARBOXYTHERAPY.pdf

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Respiratory effects on experimental heat pain and cardiac activity.

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Her viser de hvordan HRV pust (6 bpm) resuserer smerte og påvirker hjerterytmen. De sammenlignet med hvordan distraksjon reduserer smerte of fant at pusten fungerer litt bedre. De nevner at pustens smertereduserende effekt virker gjennom andre mekanismer enn distraksjon.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19671085

http://www.researchgate.net/publication/26732610_Respiratory_effects_on_experimental_heat_pain_and_cardiac_activity

Abstract

OBJECTIVE:

Slow deep breathing has been proposed as an effective method to decrease pain. However, experimental studies conducted to validate this claim have not been carried out.

DESIGN:

We measured thermal pain threshold and tolerance scores from 20 healthy adults during five different conditions, namely, during natural breathing (baseline), slow deep breathing (6 breaths/minute), rapid breathing (16 breaths/minute), distraction (video game), and heart rate (HR) biofeedback. We measured respiration (rate and depth) and HR variability from the electrocardiogram (ECG) output and analyzed the effects of respiration on pain and HR variability using time and frequency domain measures of the ECG.

RESULTS:

Compared with baseline, thermal pain threshold was significantly higher during slow deep breathing (P = 0.002), HR biofeedback (P < 0.001), and distraction (P = 0.006), whereas thermal pain tolerance was significantly higher during slow deep breathing (P = 0.003) and HR biofeedback (P < 0.001). Compared with baseline, only slow deep breathing and HR biofeedback conditions had an effect on cardiac activity. These conditions increased the amplitude of vagal cardiac markers (peak-to-valley, P < 0.001) as well as low frequency power (P < 0.001).

CONCLUSION:

Slow deep breathing and HR biofeedback had analgesic effects and increased vagal cardiac activity. Distraction also produced analgesia; however, these effects were not accompanied by concomitant changes in cardiac activity. This suggests that the neurobiology underlying respiratory-induced analgesia and distraction are different. Clinical implications are discussed, as are the possible cardiorespiratory processes responsible for mediating breathing-induced analgesia.

 

In conclusion, this is the first experimental study to systematically control for breathing frequency and distraction effects and to show that respiratory-induced analgesia reduces pain in healthy subjects. The combined cardiorespiratory and antinociceptive effects observed during slow deep breathing suggest that the modulation of HR and pain share a common neurophysiological pathway. Our results, therefore, support the use of slow deep breathing as an inexpensive and valuable adjunct to the current treatment of pain.

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Respiration-induced hypoalgesia: exploration of potential mechanisms.

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Denne beskriver hvordan sakte pust demper smerteopplevelse. Men i denne studen puster de kun 50% fra normal pustefrekvens. Om man puster 16 pust i minuttet blir dette 8 pust i minuttet. Det er fortsatt litt igjen til 6 pust i minuttet (autonom pust) som gir maksimal effekt på vagus nerven.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22770894

Respiration-Induced Hypoalgesia: Exploration of Potential …

The present study asked 30 healthy participants (M(age) = 21 years, M(education) = 15 years, 80% white non-Hispanic) to breathe at normal, slow (50% normal), and fast (125% normal) rates while constant-intensity, suprathreshold electric stimulations were delivered to the sural nerve to elicit pain and the nociceptive flexion reflex (NFR, a measure of spinal nociception).

Slow breathing reduced pain relative to normal and fast breathing. This respiration-induced hypoalgesia does not appear to be due to gating of spinal nociception or changes in parasympathetic activity.

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Preventing overtraining in athletes in high-intensity sports and stress/recovery monitoring

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Nevner de fleste faktorene rundt restitusjon. Og legger vekt på at idrettsutøvere er under-restituert heller enn over-trent. Beskriver spørreskjemaet RESTQ-Sport som kan brukes til å følge med på restitusjonseffekten hos en idrettsutøver.

http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1600-0838.2010.01192.x/full

The key defining features are

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    Recovery is a process in time and is dependent on the type of and duration of stress.
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    Recovery depends on a reduction of stress, a change of stress, or a break from stress.
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    Recovery is specific to the individual and depends on individual appraisal.
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    Recovery can be passive, active, or pro-active.
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    Recovery is closely tied to situational conditions.

Furthermore, Kellmann und Kallus (2001) defined recovery as

an inter-individual and intra-individual multi-level (e.g., psychological, physiological, social) process in time for the re-establishment of performance abilities. Recovery includes an action-oriented component, and those self-initiated activities (proactive recovery) can be systematically used to optimize situational conditions and to build up and refill personal resources and buffers (p. 22).

This definition also demonstrates the complexity of recovery, as discussed in more detail by Kellmann (2002a), and highlights the need to individually tailor recovery activities.

The RESTQ-Sport consists of 77 items (19 scales with four items each plus one warm-up item), which the participants answer retrospectively. A Likert-type scale is used with values ranging from 0 (never) to 6 (always) indicating how often the respondent participated in various activities during the past 3 days/nights. High scores in the stress-associated activity scales reflect intense subjective stress, whereas high scores in the recovery-oriented scales indicate good recovery activities.

The RESTQ-Sport consists of seven general stress scales (General Stress, Emotional Stress, Social Stress, Conflicts/Pressure, Fatigue, Lack of Energy, Physical Complaints), five general recovery scales (Success, Social Recovery, Physical Recovery, General Well-being, Sleep Quality), three sport-specific stress scales (Disturbed Breaks, Emotional Exhaustion, Injury), and four sport-specific recovery scales (Being in Shape, Personal Accomplishment, Self-Efficacy, Self-Regulation). Examples of items would be: “In the past (3) days/nights … my body felt strong” (for the scale Being in Shape) or “In the past (3) days/nights … I had a satisfying sleep” (for the scale Sleep Quality).

When talking to coaches, it appears easier to frame the current topic as underrecovery rather than overtraining. It is the coaches’ job to train athletes at the optimal level (which is often at the limit); however, they should also avoid overtraining. Coaches may be much more receptive to working with the concept of underrecovery because it acknowledges that underrecovery can also be due to factors, which are outside of their control. The diagnosis of overtraining and underrecovery, should be determined only by an interdisciplinary team that is able and willing to share the data to allow for a comprehensive assessment of the athlete. To optimize this process, the consultation of athletes should be conducted in consultation with coaches, sport physicians, and sport psychologists. Consequently, all physiological and psychological data, as well as training and performance data should be shared on an interdisciplinary basis (Kellmann, 2002a; Smith & Norris, 2002). Assessment should include a complete training documentation, the assessment of subjective and objective physiological and psychological data, and the integration of an athletes’ perspective. It is important that psychological testing like lactate testing, also be part of the regular training routine. Furthermore, research in sport psychology should systematically focus on psychological interventions, which help to optimize the recovery process, ideally in combination with physiological interventions.

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Is recovery driven by central or peripheral factors? A role for the brain in recovery following intermittent-sprint exercise

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Nevner svært mye spennende om stølhet (DOMS). Spesielt om hvor mye central sensitering har å si, og mye om hydrering (vann). Samt alt om betennelser og andre faktorer knyttet til DOMS. Sier bl.a. at glucogenlagre normaliseres etter 24 timer uavhengig av hva man spiser, men glykogen omsetningen i kroppen er begrenset i 2-3 dager etter. Nevner også at det er alle de perifere faktorene, sammen med de sentrale, som tilsammen skaper DOMS tilstanden.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3909945/

Abstract

Prolonged intermittent-sprint exercise (i.e., team sports) induce disturbances in skeletal muscle structure and function that are associated with reduced contractile function, a cascade of inflammatory responses, perceptual soreness, and a delayed return to optimal physical performance. In this context, recovery from exercise-induced fatigue is traditionally treated from a peripheral viewpoint, with the regeneration of muscle physiology and other peripheral factors the target of recovery strategies. The direction of this research narrative on post-exercise recovery differs to the increasing emphasis on the complex interaction between both central and peripheral factors regulating exercise intensity during exercise performance. Given the role of the central nervous system (CNS) in motor-unit recruitment during exercise, it too may have an integral role in post-exercise recovery. Indeed, this hypothesis is indirectly supported by an apparent disconnect in time-course changes in physiological and biochemical markers resultant from exercise and the ensuing recovery of exercise performance. Equally, improvements in perceptual recovery, even withstanding the physiological state of recovery, may interact with both feed-forward/feed-back mechanisms to influence subsequent efforts. Considering the research interest afforded to recovery methodologies designed to hasten the return of homeostasis within the muscle, the limited focus on contributors to post-exercise recovery from CNS origins is somewhat surprising. Based on this context, the current review aims to outline the potential contributions of the brain to performance recovery after strenuous exercise.

recovery strategies might be broadly differentiated as being either physiological (e.g., cryotherapy, hydrotherapy, massage, compression, sleep), pharmacological (e.g., non-steroidal anti-inflammatory medications) or nutritional (e.g., dietary supplements), all mean to limit continued post-exercise disturbances and inflammatory events within the exercised muscle cells. This peripheral focus emphasizes the importance of an accelerated return of structural integrity and functional capacity from below the neuromuscular junction.

Conceptually, if the brain is held as central to the process of performance declines (i.e., fatigue), it stands to reason that it would also have some role in post-exercise recovery (De Pauw et al., 2013).

Classically defined as an exercise-induced reduction in force generating capacity of the muscle, fatigue may be attributed to peripheral contractile failure, sub-optimal motor cortical output (supraspinal fatigue) and/or altered afferent inputs (spinal fatigue) innervating the active musculature (Gandevia, 2001).

Alternatively, concepts of residual fatigue remain predominately within the domain of peripherally driven mechanisms, such as blood flow, muscle glycogen repletion and clearance of metabolic wastes (Bangsbo et al., 2006).

The physical and biochemical changes observed during intermittent-sprint exercise have traditionally been interpreted in terms of metabolic capacity (Glaister, 2005). Indeed, lowered phosphocreatine concentrations (Dawson et al., 1997), reduced glycolytic regeneration of ATP (Gaitanos et al., 1993) and increasing H+ accumulation (Bishop et al., 2003) have all been associated with declining intermittent-sprint performance.

While reductions in muscle excitability after intermittent-sprint exercise have also been observed (Bishop, 2012), metabolic perturbations are rapidly recovered within minutes (Glaister, 2005).

The ultimate indicator of post-exercise recovery is the ability of the muscle to produce force i.e., performance outcomes.

Reductions in skeletal muscle function after intermittent-sprint exercise are often proposed to be caused by a range of peripherally-induced factors, including: intra-muscular glycogen depletion; increased muscle and blood metabolites concentrations; altered Ca++ or Na+-K+ pump function; increased skeletal muscle damage; excessive increases in endogenous muscle and core temperatures; and the reduction in circulatory function via reduced blood volume and hypohydration (Duffield and Coutts, 2011; Bishop, 2012; Nédélec et al., 2012).

Conversely, Krustrup et al. (2006) reported declines in intramuscular glycogen of 42 ± 6% in soccer players, with depleted or almost depleted glycogen stores in ~55% of type I fibers and ~25–45% of type II fibers reasoned to explain acute declines in sprint speed post-match. Importantly, muscle glycogen resynthesis after team sport activity is slow and may remain attenuated for 2–3 days (Nédélec et al., 2012). Such findings highlight the importance of nutrition in post-exercise recovery (Burke et al., 2006); yet it is noteworthy that muscle glycogen stores remain impaired 24 h after a soccer match, irrespective of carbohydrate intake and should be recognized as a factor in sustained post-match suppression of force (Bangsbo et al., 2006; Krustrup et al., 2011).

Mechanical disruptions to the muscle fiber are task dependant, though likely relate to the volume of acceleration, deceleration, directional change and inter-player contact completed (i.e., tackling or collisions) (McLellan et al., 2011; Duffield et al., 2012). Importantly, EIMD manifests in reduced voluntary force production that has been associated with the elevated expression of intracellular proteins (e.g., creatine kinase and C-reactive protein), swelling, restricted range of motion and muscle soreness (Cheung et al., 2003). Whilst it is generally accepted that lowering blood-based muscle damage profiles may hasten athletic recovery, mechanisms explaining the return of skeletal muscle function are somewhat ambiguous (Howatson and Van Someren, 2008).

Interestingly, markers of EIMD are also not closely associated with muscle soreness (Nosaka et al., 2002; Prasartwuth et al., 2005), though perceptual recovery is reportedly related with the recovery of maximal sprint speed (Cook and Beaven, 2013). While this raises questions in terms of the physiological underpinnings of muscle soreness, weaker relationships between EIMD and neuromuscular performance may suggest the potential for other drivers of recovery outside of peripheral (muscle damage or metabolic) factors alone.

Finally, while the relationship between hydration status and intermittent-sprint performance remains contentious (Edwards and Noakes, 2009), fluid deficits of 2–4% are common following team-sport exercise (Duffield and Coutts, 2011). Mild hypohydration reportedly demonstrates limited effects on anaerobic power and vertical jump performance (Hoffman et al., 1995; Cheuvront et al., 2006); however, some caution is required in interpreting these data as these testing protocols reflect only select components of team sport performance.

Nevertheless, the role of hydration in recovery should not be overlooked as changes in extracellular osmolarity are suggested to influence glucose and leucine kinetics (Keller et al., 2003). Further, the negative psychological associations (conscious or otherwise) derived from a greater perceptual effort incurred in a hypohydrated state may impact mental fatigue (Devlin et al., 2001; Mohr et al., 2010).

Rather, that the integrative regulation of whole body disturbances based on these peripheral factors, alongside central regulation may be relevant.